Joelle Vandermensbrugghe

How not to write a PhD thesis

2012-02-08T13:55:00.000+11:00

Higher Degrees by Research and mature age students

2012-02-08T13:49:00.001+11:00

This projects aims to develop understanding the experience of mature age HDR students of the process of doing a degree and of the outcomes of the degree completed. The research will focus on student who started a HDR degree when they were older than 50, and interview them when they have been at least 3 years out of the degree.

This study aims to look at

1. How students experienced engaging in a HDR degree

2. How they experienced the impact the degree had on their life subsequently ? Professional and personal. The aim of the research is not to favour one area above another, but to let participants decide on what areas of their life have been importantly impacted by their research studies.

Rationale

Research in outcomes of higher degree by research education tends to be employability, about the capacity for HDR education to prepare candidates for employment. Employability has become a driver for research in Higher Degrees by Research. As indicated by Leonard, Becker & Coate (2005) this focus is largely due to ‘external pressure on the higher education sector to be accountable in their spending of public funds’. In Australia, the need to renew an ageing workforce seems to be of particular concern. A report submitted to the Submitted to the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations in 2011 (Edwards et al, 2011) centres around the problem of an ageing academic workforce which could be solved by the current cohort of research students seen as possible replacements.

The assumption is that research students are young and engaging in research to start a career in academia or in research or increase job prospects.

But how do older research students fit in this picture? The average age of research students in Australia has increased during the last decade (DIISR 2010, p27). In 2005, 14% of PhD students were over 50 while 22% were between 40 and 49 (Pearson et al 2008, p 24). More recent figures published by DEEWR (Higher Education Statistics Collection, Commencements, 2008 cited in Access Economics 2010, p 32) indicate that about 40% of HDR candidates commence when over 40, 20% over 50. The mean age of PhD students is higher in some fields, in education is 45, while in engineering and in natural and physical sciences it is 29 (Pearson et al, 2008).

What are outcomes for older students – or more to the point how do older students experience outcomes of their research degree? In the view of research conducted on the renewal of the academic and research workforce, research students above 50 may be perceived as somehow be problematic as this age group is already seen as dominating academia. This is about lifelong learning, which is about essential engagement with society.

This research will also look at motivations for older students to start a research degree and their experience of the research degree. Grouping students who started a research degree over 50 as if they were one homogeneous group may not work very well as there are still many differences in age, gender, motivations, expectations..., but the research will provide us with an insight into how some older research students have experienced their degree and life after the degree and will as such contribute to the discussion about engaging in a PhD at an older age.

Because it proposes to examine reasons for doing a research degree, the experience of a research degree and outcomes, this study will also contribute to the discussion on the purpose of the PhD, which is surrounded by a lot of uncertainty at the moment. Universities have become part of a wider knowledge market which has forced them into the marketplace (Usher 2002). Mature research students not only contribute to knowledge, but also bring knowledge transfer in and out universities ( Leonard et al, 2005). The new knowledge economy requires flexibility and ‘an important aspect of flexibility is diversity’ (Usher, 2002 p151).

Australia has great diversity in its research population (Pearson et al , 2008). Yet little qualitative research on mature age research candidates has been carried out. Official government statistics and provide quantitative data on outcomes. Research on outcome focuses on employment. Examples are form research carried out by University of Queensland Social Research Centre (UQSRC) carried out a research on employment outcomes of PHD graduates in Australia (Western et al 2007) and on employment outcomes for women PhD graduates (Denver wet al 2008). In the UK, Leonard et al (2005) contacted people who completed a research degree with the Institute of Education ( UK) 2, 7 and 12 years after completion to conclude . They found that they undertook studies for professional, personal development and intellectual interest, and that their research qualification contributed to career advancement but only over time. Leonard et al (2005) concluded by underlining ‘the continuing importance of intellectual and emotional growth in the benefits derived from the doctorate’ (p146). Peelo (2010) interviewed students after completion to seek information on the experience of supervision and employment outcomes as related to supervision. The Council of Australian Postgraduate Associations (CAPA) has carried out research in terms of how well research students were supported and represented at universities (see e.g. CAPA 2010).

Multicultural policy

2011-02-17T09:44:00.000+11:00

Australia has finally re-introduced a new multicultral policy
http://www.immi.gov.au/living-in-australia/a-diverse-australia/multicultural-policy/

Multiculturalism had over the last years become an un-cool boring topic, only to be revived at the occasional festival or harmony day where we are reminded that Australia has people from non English backgrounds who can cook, eat and dance. The portrayal of most migrants or non Australians temporarily residing in Australia often reminds me of a scene from a German movie about Las Casas. Unfortunately I cannot remember the name of the movie. But in that movie there was a scene in which a Spanish navy commander, who had been made prisoner/rescued by an indigenous group in America, runs around screaming on a beach. While very successful in Spain, in America he became totally useless (could not recognise edible food, did not know how to behave...) and he was screaming out at the sea the sky the sun that he was someone, had a family, property, skills....

Unrecognised the potential of many migrants not only goes to waste, but generates a lot of frustration. Re-instatement of multiculturalism will at least support discussion around these themes, and hopefully allow multiculturalism to develop beyond food and folkloric dancing.

Internationalisation of education in Australia

2011-02-15T21:55:00.000+11:00

Abstract

As a major source of income for Australia, international students constitute a valuable commodity. Unfortunately, in Australia the debate about internationalisation in Australia has largely been confined to the question of how international students can be attracted and how they should be supported, rather than about the benefits Australia can derive from exposure to international students.

Internationalisation is a multilateral process. At the moment international students are, in Australia, in practice regarded as foreign students. Their experience, skills, knowledge, networks often go unacknowledged. This not only results in feelings of inadequacy held by international students, but also prevents Australia from accessing full benefits of internationalisation. This paper argues that Australians need to position themselves as international students, encourage language acquisition and mobility to non English speaking countries, and recognise the potential usefulness of engaging with different skills and knowledges.

Introduction

Approximately half a million international tertiary students were studying in Australia in 2009 (DEST statistics, 2009). These students are a major source of income for

Australia

. Australians, on the other hand, do not generally see themselves as international students. Nor is the input, in other than financial terms, of international students accented in debates on international education. Internationalisation of education is as such a not the multidirectional process it should be, for full benefits to be derived from the process by all parties.

This paper suggests that internationalisation as it is currently conceived of in Australia will in the longer term affect the country’s capacity to maintain a role as a quality provider of tertiary education and research, and, more broadly and more importantly, as a culturally and geopolitically rich nation having valid and worthwhile interactions with its neighbours and the globe. Not recognising the value of input from abroad, or perceiving the knowledge and skills generated non-domestically as irrelevant will limit the country’s capacity to play a key role in world affairs, as well as narrow the scope of possibilities for its own citizens.

Successful globalisation requires successful management of a variety of economic and social problems and a variety of identities. Today, the ‘other’ is more visible than ever. Seeing, recognising the ‘other’, or at least knowing the ‘other’ enough eliminate fear is a prerequisite for learning to live together (Wolton, 2009). The economic, social, and political future of the world can only be as strong as the cooperation between differing identities/cultures. Research has shown (see e.g. Dewaele and van Oudenhoven, 2009) that international education is a key to the development of tolerance and the acceptance of differences.

Internationalisation in theory and in practice

Internationalisation is neither clearly defined nor well understood (Bartell, 2003). Bartell (2003) sees it as a step towards globalisation, a step involving the ‘…real or virtual movement of students, teachers, knowledge and academic programs from one country to another’ (Knight, 2002). A widely accepted definition of internationalisation is ‘the process of integrating an international/intercultural or global dimension into the purpose, function or delivery of post secondary education’ (Knight 2004, p 1). The crucial word in this definition is the word ‘integrating’, which is also used in other definitions (see e.g. Ellingboe, 1998 cited in Bartell 2003). In practice, this integration has so far been rather one sided as Australia has taken advantage of a demand for knowledge and expertise in English and practices which are linked to status, power and valuable knowledge.

Education has become a commodity, traded on in a very lucrative market, and essentially motivated by profit. The commodification of education may in the longer term affect the quality and kind of knowledge pursued, as it goes against the tradition of education as a public good or social responsibility, one which ‘…recognises that the global economic and social effects of having an educated population provide an ample return on the public's financial commitment, thus justifying significant higher education funding’ (Reindl, 2005). Instead education has become preoccupied with possible ‘…upward occupational and social mobility, rather than as a means of developing the mind, enriching the intellect and training conscientious, responsible, and socio-politically committed citizens’ (Asgharzadeh,2008, p 335). The tendency is also to pursue knowledge that favours short term thinking: it is about what can be obtained here and now and not about developing and exploring the unknown in ways which may result in useful long term outcomes.

Internationalisation strategies mainly involve recruitment of foreign students. Most educational institutions have also set up support programs, but they are generally well below what would be required considering the number of international students who could benefit from such support. Australia has also made some effort to promote mobility of its own students and staff, and international partnerships. But this mobility is generally limited to working with other English speaking countries or sending staff to non-English speaking countries to teach, to act as experts, rather than as learners. Other attempts to promote internationalisation include the incorporation of international material in courses. But generally this does not include incorporating international practices, ways to approach knowledge and international knowledge itself. International students are regarded as clients who come to learn English and to be educated in Australian practices and knowledge. Practices which in some cases may not even be relevant in other countries. Not enough follow up research has been done about what international do with the knowledge acquired in Australia, once back in their home country, to document the usefulness abroad of education in Australia.

Australia as an education exporter

Australia

is an education exporter. In 2007, over 455,000 international students enrolled in courses in Australia (Studies in

Australia

, n.d.). In 2008, 294,163 students were studying in higher education and 11,596 were working towards a doctoral or masters by research degree (DEST Statistics, 2009). These international students provide much needed financial resources to the Australian education sector. The activity generated by international students contributes more than $17 billion annually to the national economy, making it Australia’s fourth largest export (Harrison, 2010). According to Altbach (1999), this extra revenue is ‘to a considerable extent motivated by a need to export in order to make up budget shortfalls at home’. Australian education export industry is therefore not built on a solid base of quality, but on the deliberate underfunding of the Australian system, which has ‘emptied out quality’ (Marginson, 2009). Australia’s success is the result of a necessary and very effective marketing effort (Marginson, 2009). For many students Australia is not a first, but a practical choice as it is cheaper than the United Kingdom or the United States, and geographically closer to Asia.

International student as silent and clumsy outsiders

Internationalisation of education is, in theory, not only expected to bring financial benefit to Australia, but also personal and academic opportunities for both local and international students (Ward, 2003). The expectation is that domestic students benefit as internationalisation increases cross cultural competencies, improves personal growth and career prospects, and creates greater social cohesion (Brown, 2009). In practice, these opportunities are not developed, partly because of the lack of intercultural exchanges between international and domestic students. In general, international students’ level of integration largely depends on how well they are able to blend in. In practice this means that the more different a student will, the more changes are he will remain an outsider. Domestic students gain little through this type of exposure to other cultures.

Overall, domestic students tend to make little effort to establish relationships with international students. This may be because domestic students are not aware of the potential benefits of relationships with international students. The knowledge and skills international students bring are generally regarded as non-existent or of no importance. The assumption is that international students do not bring any knowledge or skills, but come with gaps in knowledge and skills and that these gaps could more easily be filled if their existing beliefs and practices were not standing in the way.

Not surprisingly, the presence of international students is by Australian Universities seen as a challenge, rather than as an opportunity. Host universities are currently less likely to benefit because the potential gains, other than financial, are not recognised. The potential to enrich the quality of the learning experience through the multicultural dimension (Salmi 2009) is not clearly acknowledged. Nor is the potential contribution of international students in terms of building international networks. Despite the growing importance of international knowledge networks, little recognition is given to doctoral students who when returning to their countries often resume or enter positions of power within educational or governmental organisations.

In Australia, the term ‘international education’ tends to separate one main cultural and linguistic group – the local/domestic students – from a smaller group: students visiting the country from overseas. Initially an administrative distinction, it also connotes a well-adapted group of students on the one hand, and on the other a problematic minority group with inadequate language and learning skills. This distinction has exacerbated profound cultural differences. International students overall remain very much outsiders in Australia. Australian education institutions have little understanding of their international students, creating an identity for them that is ‘not only superficial but also inaccurate’ (Chowdhurry, 2009). This is also due to a lack of effort to listen, to recognise the variety of international students and the rich potential they could bring to institutions (Chowdhurry, 2009). The resulting loneliness of the international student has been explored by Sawir et al (2002).

This is not unique to Australia. Research carried out in other English speaking countries has shown that international students tend to isolate themselves. In the UK, according to Brown (2009, p 452) international students in the UK saw the local community as ‘unfriendly and at times threatening’. Not surprisingly Montgomery and McDowell (2009), found that the prevailing perception of international students is that ‘…they have difficulty in becoming involved in social exchange with other students who do not share their "culture" and language’. In New Zealand, Daly and Brown (2004) and Deakins (2009) noted the same low level of interaction between international and local students. A report provided by the University of Melbourne (Fincher et al, 2009) suggests that institutions (not necessarily knowingly) encourage this separation through practices that support the ‘formation of socio-cultural ‘silos’, which separate international from domestic students. Not surprisingly research shows that international students tend to feel alienated, discriminated against, homesick and fearful because of unfamiliar surroundings, and experience stress as result of culture shock and guilt (Sandhu and Asrabi 1994, cited in Dewaele and van Oudenhoven, 2009; Poyrazli and Lopez 2007, cited in Dewaele and van Oudenhoven 2009; and Koehne, 2006).

The distinction between international and domestic students seriously questions the concept of internationalisation, as it fails to recognise that everyone is potentially an international student. Any debate about internationalisation should see Australians position themselves as international students, should encourage placing all cultures and languages in an equal position. At the moment few Australian students engage in student exchange with non-English speaking countries.

Successfully adapting to another country requires the acquisition of multiple cultural competencies, almost co-existing cultural identities. While Australia likes to portray itself as a multicultural nation, the country does not really value competencies in more than one cultural sphere. Because educational trends are largely based on assimilation (Cargill and Cadman, 2005), international students coming to Australia have to give up some of their identity. Not surprisingly, many international students find it difficult to capitalise on the competencies acquired. One of the major contributions of an international experience is that it allows acquiring new skills and knowledge that can be integrated to pre-existing knowledge, practices and experiences and thereby used to bridge different cultural worlds. This requires the capacity to handle multiple cultural competencies. The contribution of many international students, while still in Australia, never reaches its full potential, since education institutions do not provide scope for building on pre-existing skills and knowledge which remain largely unacknowledged. Little is done to acknowledge international students for who they are. What seems to count is what they are not.

Appropriate strategies at institutional level and openness to the multilateral dimension of internationalisation is needed to ensure international students’ contributions are capitalised on. But this is only possible if it is facilitated through resource allocation at universities and more widely at national and global levels. Internationalisation is not merely an opportunity for swift capital gain, but a response to globalisation and the increased interdependence of countries. To remain strong in such an environment requires openness to new ideas and approaches. As indicated by Salmi (2009) ‘…strong universities are universities that open themselves to new ideas and approaches’.

Visions for internationalisation

Genuine internationalisation requires understanding its importance. Globalisation has made the development and fostering of international competencies essential (Bartell, 2003). Australia, as a wealthy and relatively isolated country, has to a certain extent remained sheltered from outside influence and therefore been able to underestimate the need for international competencies, considering these as a luxury of possible interest to Australian tourists or to diplomats posted overseas.

Even though Australia is a migrant country, it has never promoted multi-cultural diversity at more than a superficial level. The current national government has put aside multiculturalism, in favour of policies focussing on integration, assimilation and minimalisation of conflict through de-radicalisation (Jakubowicz, 2009). While the Australian government became a signatory to the Unesco Convention on Protection and Promotion of the Diversity and Cultural Expression in 2009, less attention has been paid to setting up adequate implementation mechanisms to support this are just. Multiculturalism implies that ‘the traditional culture should not be given pride of place, that the minority cultures are central to its identity’ (Paresh, 2002). The same definition could be applied to internationalisation. At the moment contributions from multicultural communities and international students are, in Australia, generally limited to food and folkloric dance. The term ‘multicultural’, just like the term ‘international’, refers to the ‘other’, who does not speak English properly, eats differently and lives differently.

The big challenge of globalisation lies precisely in the capacity to accept other constructions of knowledge and views of the world and an ability to engage in a genuine democratic exchange with other cultures – a debate of which the purpose is not establishing right or wrong, but the willingness and preparedness to identify what can be learned from each other.

This requires support at governmental and organisational management levels, as well as from grass root levels, from the teachers and academics who influence and apply pedagogical choices. The goal of international education should not only concern attracting international students -- though this is important as they can help the education of local students – but ensure that Australian students become internationally knowledgeable (Bartell 2003) and develop cross cultural skills and knowledge.

Understanding the benefits of international education

International experiences not only help students acquire language skills, multicultural competencies, but also promote certain personality traits such as open-mindedness, cultural empathy and a perception of oneself as a global citizen. Dewaele and van Oudenhoven (2009) examined the benefits of multiculturalism and found that young teenagers brought up in more than one place and language developed open mindedness and cultural empathy. Since Australians, remain reluctant to actively engage in international exchanges they are unlikely to derive much benefit from international education as it is currently practised, a one-way flow of knowledge to recipients whose experience and knowledge remains untapped and unacknowledged. Simply being exposed to international students is insufficient for local students to fully benefit from the potential cross-cultural exchanges (Daly and Brown, 2004), particularly as international students are perceived as recipients of education and limited opportunities are provided for them to share their experience and knowledge.

Recognition of foreign skills and knowledges

International education practices in Australia demonstrate limited recognition of foreign skills and knowledge. International students need to be able to adapt and adopt skills, somehow engaging in a process of mimicking Australians. International students who find this difficult have little chance to be recognised as successful students in Australia.

Being able to operate in more than one culture requires a lot of self confidence, as it is about negotiating identity which ‘can concern the value of identity as well as identity content’ (Liebkind, 1995). Positive identity development requires an environment in which all cultures – and knowledge and skills derived from them – are given an opportunity to express themselves as equally valid and worth discussing.

Discourses about knowledge suggest that valuable knowledge is to be found in the West, mainly in the UK and the US (Koehne, 2006). By extension, Australia (also an ex-British colony perceived to be populated mainly by descendants of English-speaking migrants) is next on the list. However, the richness of internationalisation will not come from homogenisation through the domination of the English speaking West, but from a continuous cultural exchange (Knight 2002). Fifteen years ago, the American Council on Education recommended that institutions had to ‘become in a genuine sense institutions without boundaries’ (Bartell, 2003, p 49). International education requires fostering of the co-existence of multiple cultures; it concerns changing enough to be aware of and be prepared to understand other cultures.

Everyone is potentially an international student.

International education is invariably defined within Australian research as pertaining to others; however it has to concern us, here, now. Each domestic student (and researcher, academic) should be able to conceive her/himself as an international student. Change may require a new vocabulary which does not equate the international student to the ‘other’. Sanderson (2007, p 289) re-introduces the old concept of cosmopolitanism, which refers to the idea of world citizen, as ‘… a possible way forward for individuals, communities and political governance’.

As the birthplace of cosmopolitanism and enlightenment values, continental Europe may find it easier to adapt to this idea, as most Europeans are constantly exposed to other languages and cultures which present themselves as having the same value as their own. The Bologna Declaration has further built on this by initiating a process that aims to achieve consistency and commonality in higher education, including the promotion of mobility and inter-institutional collaboration. Most higher education students in continental Europe spend part of their studies in another country. Most speak more than one language and engage in developing multiple cultural competencies.

Language and cultural policy

The development of a genuine language policy in Australia would help. It is crucial to the capacity to look at and recognise other cultures and bodies of knowledge as valuable. Currently, learning a second language is, in Australia, considered fashionable, but not important. Even though ‘knowing more languages truly opens one’s eyes to the world’ (Dewaele and van Oudenhoven, 2009). Multiple language knowledge brings ‘cognitive and behavioural flexibility, cultural empathy, strength and a non-ethnocentric posture’ (Kim 2001, cited in Dewaele and van Oudenhoven, 2009).

If enough students and academics would speak a variety of languages, activities in multiple languages could be proposed in Universities. This would allow for an environment of reciprocity in the exchange of learning and knowledge. Research seminars in a variety of languages could become common. This could initially be supported through the involvement of language schools, which would help building a critical mass. At the postgraduate level, it would provide international research students the opportunity to present knowledge and ideas in a format and an environment representing them not as clumsy outsiders but as competent experts. It would allow them to confidently cross cultural borders and, in doing so help others to develop skills and confidence in the application of knowledge and research.

The existence of a student body speaking several languages is also a vital step in promoting student mobility. Australian students would be less reticent to study in countries where English is not the first language if they spoke other languages. Many countries are instituting schemes that encourage global mobility. These should be embraced. The same goes for Australian academics, who are used to travel as experts, but are rarely encouraged to do so as lifelong learners

Role of teachers

Teachers play an important role at the level of implementation of the process of recognising the other (Deakin 2009, Snowball 2009, Wihborg, 2009). According to Wilhborg (2009), international education research must focus on ‘how intentions aimed at internationalisation are actually concretised in teaching and learning’. For Snowball (2009) international education can only lead to inter-culturality with support from the teachers with developed inter-cultural literacy. Teachers have the capacity to portray international students as bringing with them new knowledge, thereby allowing acceptance of this knowledge within the Australian curriculum. This requires recognising and providing room for two-way exchanges. For Sanderson (2007, p 295), teachers who embrace cosmopolitanism as a way of life will be the type of agents who can help to create ‘the necessary utopia’. International or intercultural education can only be truly effective with a meld of cultures within the classroom, not the domination of one culture over others (Cadman, 2000). Salvadori (pp. 187–188 1997 cited in Deakin, 2009) attributes a crucial role to the teacher when stating that achievement of multicultural education, ‘…will only be valid … when something changes in the culture of both [the classroom body of students and the teacher] so that a common culture is created that is different from the original cultures of both’. This role does not rely on creating one single culture from the blend of existing cultures, nor does it concern the homogenisation of culture and education following the domination of English (if not US) culture and English as a language of instruction.

Importance of formal support from the top

To ensure teachers, as first contact point, can implement processes supporting internationalisation, internationality/interculturality at the institutional and international level. This requires policies promoting mobility and institutional exchange. it requires promoting mobility of Australian students and staff not only to contribute to knowledge in host nations but also to learn from it. At an institutional level it requires the appointment of staff from a variety of cultures at all levels, a push for multilinguism not just as a ritual but as a genuine multi lateral process.

Conclusion

The internationalisation of education is generally perceived in Australia to be largely of economic benefit. This paper argues that internationalisation, as a prerequisite of globalisation, needs to be taken more seriously; that it can no longer be seen simply as hosting foreign students in a knowledge market, but has to involve a reciprocal exchange in which the knowledge and cultures of others is recognised and valued. This is not only important to position Australia and Australian educational institutions firmly in a global environment, but also to underscore the democratic exchange and coexistence of cultures, a function which will be vital to the future political, economic and social welfare of Australia. This is particularly important to Australia, given its position in the Asia-Pacific region (Dunstan, 2003).

Internationalisation need to be a multilateral process and its benefits for Australia understood in other than financial terms. This can then be supported through development of multilinguism, recognition of foreign skills and knowledges as possibly equally valuable. Teachers play an important role in promoting these visions, but they be able to do so, there needs to be supported from institutions and national policy.

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